diff --git a/nano/lib/blocks.cpp b/nano/lib/blocks.cpp
index a4c21b867..4fc527eb0 100644
--- a/nano/lib/blocks.cpp
+++ b/nano/lib/blocks.cpp
@@ -609,7 +609,7 @@ std::optional<nano::account> nano::send_block::destination_field () const
 	return hashables.destination;
 }
 
-nano::root const & nano::send_block::root () const
+nano::root nano::send_block::root () const
 {
 	return hashables.previous;
 }
@@ -899,7 +899,7 @@ std::optional<nano::block_hash> nano::open_block::source_field () const
 	return hashables.source;
 }
 
-nano::root const & nano::open_block::root () const
+nano::root nano::open_block::root () const
 {
 	return hashables.account;
 }
@@ -1165,7 +1165,7 @@ bool nano::change_block::valid_predecessor (nano::block const & block_a) const
 	return result;
 }
 
-nano::root const & nano::change_block::root () const
+nano::root nano::change_block::root () const
 {
 	return hashables.previous;
 }
@@ -1482,7 +1482,7 @@ bool nano::state_block::valid_predecessor (nano::block const & block_a) const
 	return true;
 }
 
-nano::root const & nano::state_block::root () const
+nano::root nano::state_block::root () const
 {
 	if (!hashables.previous.is_zero ())
 	{
@@ -1836,7 +1836,7 @@ std::optional<nano::block_hash> nano::receive_block::source_field () const
 	return hashables.source;
 }
 
-nano::root const & nano::receive_block::root () const
+nano::root nano::receive_block::root () const
 {
 	return hashables.previous;
 }
diff --git a/nano/lib/blocks.hpp b/nano/lib/blocks.hpp
index 1ddb8302d..2312855cb 100644
--- a/nano/lib/blocks.hpp
+++ b/nano/lib/blocks.hpp
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ public:
 	virtual uint64_t block_work () const = 0;
 	virtual void block_work_set (uint64_t) = 0;
 	// Previous block or account number for open blocks
-	virtual nano::root const & root () const = 0;
+	virtual nano::root root () const = 0;
 	// Qualified root value based on previous() and root()
 	virtual nano::qualified_root qualified_root () const;
 	virtual void serialize (nano::stream &) const = 0;
@@ -123,7 +123,7 @@ public:
 	virtual ~send_block () = default;
 	uint64_t block_work () const override;
 	void block_work_set (uint64_t) override;
-	nano::root const & root () const override;
+	nano::root root () const override;
 	void serialize (nano::stream &) const override;
 	bool deserialize (nano::stream &);
 	void serialize_json (std::string &, bool = false) const override;
@@ -177,7 +177,7 @@ public:
 	virtual ~receive_block () = default;
 	uint64_t block_work () const override;
 	void block_work_set (uint64_t) override;
-	nano::root const & root () const override;
+	nano::root root () const override;
 	void serialize (nano::stream &) const override;
 	bool deserialize (nano::stream &);
 	void serialize_json (std::string &, bool = false) const override;
@@ -232,7 +232,7 @@ public:
 	virtual ~open_block () = default;
 	uint64_t block_work () const override;
 	void block_work_set (uint64_t) override;
-	nano::root const & root () const override;
+	nano::root root () const override;
 	void serialize (nano::stream &) const override;
 	bool deserialize (nano::stream &);
 	void serialize_json (std::string &, bool = false) const override;
@@ -287,7 +287,7 @@ public:
 	virtual ~change_block () = default;
 	uint64_t block_work () const override;
 	void block_work_set (uint64_t) override;
-	nano::root const & root () const override;
+	nano::root root () const override;
 	void serialize (nano::stream &) const override;
 	bool deserialize (nano::stream &);
 	void serialize_json (std::string &, bool = false) const override;
@@ -353,7 +353,7 @@ public:
 	virtual ~state_block () = default;
 	uint64_t block_work () const override;
 	void block_work_set (uint64_t) override;
-	nano::root const & root () const override;
+	nano::root root () const override;
 	void serialize (nano::stream &) const override;
 	bool deserialize (nano::stream &);
 	void serialize_json (std::string &, bool = false) const override;
diff --git a/nano/lib/numbers.cpp b/nano/lib/numbers.cpp
index 3d2e88823..916329b67 100644
--- a/nano/lib/numbers.cpp
+++ b/nano/lib/numbers.cpp
@@ -735,6 +735,13 @@ std::ostream & nano::operator<< (std::ostream & os, const uint512_union & val)
 	return os;
 }
 
+std::ostream & nano::operator<< (std::ostream & os, const hash_or_account & val)
+{
+	// TODO: Replace with streaming implementation
+	os << val.to_string ();
+	return os;
+}
+
 #ifdef _WIN32
 #pragma warning(push)
 #pragma warning(disable : 4146) // warning C4146: unary minus operator applied to unsigned type, result still unsigned
diff --git a/nano/lib/numbers.hpp b/nano/lib/numbers.hpp
index 2db23118b..88e4de560 100644
--- a/nano/lib/numbers.hpp
+++ b/nano/lib/numbers.hpp
@@ -189,10 +189,6 @@ public: // Keep operators inlined
 };
 static_assert (std::is_nothrow_move_constructible<uint256_union>::value, "uint256_union should be noexcept MoveConstructible");
 
-class link;
-class root;
-class hash_or_account;
-
 // All keys and hashes are 256 bit.
 class block_hash final : public uint256_union
 {
@@ -212,18 +208,6 @@ public: // Keep operators inlined
 	{
 		return number ();
 	}
-	operator nano::link () const
-	{
-		return nano::link{ *this };
-	}
-	operator nano::root () const
-	{
-		return nano::root{ *this };
-	}
-	operator nano::hash_or_account () const
-	{
-		return nano::hash_or_account{ *this };
-	}
 };
 
 class public_key final : public uint256_union
@@ -260,18 +244,6 @@ public: // Keep operators inlined
 	{
 		return number ();
 	}
-	operator nano::link () const
-	{
-		return nano::link{ *this };
-	}
-	operator nano::root () const
-	{
-		return nano::root{ *this };
-	}
-	operator nano::hash_or_account () const
-	{
-		return nano::hash_or_account{ *this };
-	}
 };
 
 class wallet_id : public uint256_union
@@ -289,7 +261,7 @@ public:
 		account{} {};
 	hash_or_account (uint64_t value) :
 		raw{ value } {};
-	explicit hash_or_account (uint256_union const & value) :
+	hash_or_account (uint256_union const & value) :
 		raw{ value } {};
 
 	void clear ()
@@ -325,11 +297,11 @@ public: // Keep operators inlined
 	{
 		return *this <=> other == 0;
 	}
-	operator nano::uint256_t () const
+	explicit operator nano::uint256_t () const
 	{
 		return raw.number ();
 	}
-	operator nano::uint256_union () const
+	explicit operator nano::uint256_union () const
 	{
 		return raw;
 	}
@@ -399,13 +371,13 @@ class uint512_union
 {
 public:
 	uint512_union () = default;
-	uint512_union (nano::uint256_union const & upper, nano::uint256_union const & lower) :
-		uint256s{ upper, lower } {};
 	uint512_union (nano::uint512_t const & value)
 	{
 		bytes.fill (0);
 		boost::multiprecision::export_bits (value, bytes.rbegin (), 8, false);
 	}
+	uint512_union (nano::uint256_union const & upper, nano::uint256_union const & lower) :
+		uint256s{ upper, lower } {};
 
 	nano::uint512_union & operator^= (nano::uint512_union const & other)
 	{
@@ -473,7 +445,11 @@ public:
 class qualified_root : public uint512_union
 {
 public:
-	using uint512_union::uint512_union;
+	qualified_root () = default;
+	qualified_root (nano::root const & root, nano::block_hash const & previous) :
+		uint512_union{ root.as_union (), previous.as_union () } {};
+	qualified_root (nano::uint512_t const & value) :
+		uint512_union{ value } {};
 
 	nano::root root () const
 	{
@@ -501,6 +477,7 @@ bool from_string_hex (std::string const &, uint64_t &);
 std::ostream & operator<< (std::ostream &, const uint128_union &);
 std::ostream & operator<< (std::ostream &, const uint256_union &);
 std::ostream & operator<< (std::ostream &, const uint512_union &);
+std::ostream & operator<< (std::ostream &, const hash_or_account &);
 
 /**
  * Convert a double to string in fixed format
@@ -643,6 +620,11 @@ struct fmt::formatter<nano::uint512_union> : fmt::ostream_formatter
 {
 };
 
+template <>
+struct fmt::formatter<nano::hash_or_account> : fmt::ostream_formatter
+{
+};
+
 template <>
 struct fmt::formatter<nano::block_hash> : fmt::formatter<nano::uint256_union>
 {
@@ -656,4 +638,4 @@ struct fmt::formatter<nano::public_key> : fmt::formatter<nano::uint256_union>
 template <>
 struct fmt::formatter<nano::qualified_root> : fmt::formatter<nano::uint512_union>
 {
-};
\ No newline at end of file
+};
diff --git a/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap.cpp b/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap.cpp
index 3db711dfc..8779400ee 100644
--- a/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap.cpp
+++ b/nano/node/bootstrap/bootstrap.cpp
@@ -313,7 +313,7 @@ void nano::pulls_cache::add (nano::pull_info const & pull_a)
 			cache.erase (cache.begin ());
 		}
 		debug_assert (cache.size () <= cache_size_max);
-		nano::uint512_union head_512 (pull_a.account_or_head, pull_a.head_original);
+		nano::uint512_union head_512 (pull_a.account_or_head.as_union (), pull_a.head_original);
 		auto existing (cache.get<account_head_tag> ().find (head_512));
 		if (existing == cache.get<account_head_tag> ().end ())
 		{
@@ -336,7 +336,7 @@ void nano::pulls_cache::add (nano::pull_info const & pull_a)
 void nano::pulls_cache::update_pull (nano::pull_info & pull_a)
 {
 	nano::lock_guard<nano::mutex> guard{ pulls_cache_mutex };
-	nano::uint512_union head_512 (pull_a.account_or_head, pull_a.head_original);
+	nano::uint512_union head_512 (pull_a.account_or_head.as_union (), pull_a.head_original);
 	auto existing (cache.get<account_head_tag> ().find (head_512));
 	if (existing != cache.get<account_head_tag> ().end ())
 	{
@@ -347,7 +347,7 @@ void nano::pulls_cache::update_pull (nano::pull_info & pull_a)
 void nano::pulls_cache::remove (nano::pull_info const & pull_a)
 {
 	nano::lock_guard<nano::mutex> guard{ pulls_cache_mutex };
-	nano::uint512_union head_512 (pull_a.account_or_head, pull_a.head_original);
+	nano::uint512_union head_512 (pull_a.account_or_head.as_union (), pull_a.head_original);
 	cache.get<account_head_tag> ().erase (head_512);
 }